Systems Development: Concepts, Issues and Approaches

Systems information Concepts, Issues and ApproachesSystems exploitation concepts, issues and go upes and the relationship surrounded by technologies and their complaisant context fountainhead 1Why ar conventional cash advancees to strategys name considered to be techno-centric?INTRODUCTIONThis paper presents a thorough ex externalizeation of the several(a) processes link up to organisations project and to the problems that face the conventional, or handed-down, rules fit to which computer trunks, of alone classs, are anatomyed. The paper each(prenominal)(prenominal)ow then apologize why the traditional approaches of corpse design are considered to be techno-centric.Before being fitted to answer the main headspring of this paper, we should define genuine depots in order to clarify all the elements that will be discussed later on.Simmers (2004, p.542-543), claims that a computer establishment is an electronic device that skunk be idea of as a complete knowledge-processing center. It arse calculate, store, sort, update, manipulate, sequence, organize, and process entropy. It as hygienic controls establishment of logic operations and can rapidly communicate in graphics, summates, words, and sounds. opposite exposition is presented by Avgerou and Cornford (1998, p.1), as they state that information systems refer to information and data handling activities in military man organizations. Information handling in this reek is a purposeful action mechanism sustained over clipping, and includes the activities of collecting information, storing it, tell it to appropriate places and people, and utilizing it in various tasks within the organization.The designer of the system attempts to position a particular proposition problem within a given surround of operation, for exemplification, and creates a set of processes that should be satisfactory to resolve that problem agree to pre-determined instructions and requirements (Kelkar, 2004).SYSTEM DESIGNA system is supposed to dispense a variety of issues colligate to an organisation and to enable the people whom are considered to be the individuals that deal with those issues to bring properly, swiftly, more efficiently, and more accurately. This usually also involves the interaction (inter-connectivity) between all those working in a specific section.The person (or group of people) that are supposed to design the desired system should study and analyse thoroughly the problem sphere, identifying the various elements and factors involved in it, proposing contrastive system options, put them into test (preferably in real working environss), and finally selecting, with the help of the management of the organisation in skepticism, the best solution.figurer systems designers, almost from the very setoff of this field, tended to work exclusively within their expert realm meaning that they were identifying the problem and creating the solution that, e vidently, was successful, just now that was only functional and facilitated to themselves and to people of the same technical background. This created a reality which made it, somewhat, laboured for average users, who are also supposed to be the end users of like a shots computer systems, to deal, interact, let alone formulate efficiently employ those systems.The main problem in this context, as explained by Doherty King (2005, p.2), is that the designers do non, in most cases, follow most indispensable steps in what concerns the analysis of the impact of utilising the computer solution on the organisation and in what concerns the interaction between the created system and the gentlemans gentleman factor of that organisation. According to Poulymenakou Holmes, 1996 (in Doherty and King, 2005, p.2), the acceptation of techno-centric development approaches can be a very dangerous strategy, as it encourages developers to deliver and implement the information system, and only then, if at all, worry somewhat adapting it to its organisational context.The conventional methodology, which depends solely on creating a computer system that is successful in resolving a given problem and that work from a technical (or computer programmable and configurable) point of view, is considered to be techno-centric because the most alpha factor in designing the system, which is the human factor, has non be interpreted into consideration fully by the designer (or the designers) during the writ of execution of their initial plan of work.M whatever specialists and researchers keep on calling for a methodology of system design that focuses more on the social aspect of the created tool slight progress has been made in the development of practical socio-technical methods and approaches that have succeeded in making the transition from research laboratory to widespread commercial practice (Doherty King, 2005, p.2).Davidson and Chiasson (2004, p.6) state that the three ma in stages of information technology are the development, the implementation, and the assimilation. They show on the fact that all the details that are related to the nonchalant use of the technology may not be seen at the duration of planning because the attention is focused on overall patronage goals and implementation strategy. This makes the period following the installation and the initial implementation highly alpha as all the social and human related factors must be adjusted and circumscribed to suit the users and the organisation as a whole. there are various examples of systems that were created according to the conventional, techno-centric, approach and that have failed at the time of implementation because the designers lacked the social-oriented element in their design Doherty and King (2005, p.2) mentioned several failed experiences of this kind cases such as the London Ambulance System, the Taurus System, and the Benefits Payment Card System. different examples w ere presented by Davidson and Chiasson (2005, p.6-12) who reported that the electronic medical record systems (EMRS) that were used in two healthcare organisations were also a cause of concern, to a certain extent. The authors confirm that the original systems created for the health organisations needed to be socially modified with the implementation of TUM (Technology Use Mediation) during system development stages and by dint ofout the period in which the systems were in use. System configuration required changes to software package infra bodily structure and code. Organizational size influenced the availability and the effectiveness of mediation resources.Another factor that is involved in the conventional approach is the total underrating of priorly existing systems which is also another characteristic of techno-centric methods of design and system development. Ignoring the sometime(a) systems leads the designer to create something that is all told new to the organisation , and this also excludes the effects, the advantages, and the usability of the previous system. The usability of the system and the ability of people within the organisation to work with it came as a effect of a long period of system modifications (whether ironware or software) and of personal training and different processes of errors and corrections which is what can be considered as the social-related side of system development. All those elements will be totally discarded by the designer during his/her development of the new system, which will result in the new system going through the same stages that the old system passed through, and this is another form of time-related and financially-related losses to the organisation.Chae and Poole (2005, p.19) pose an important question Is it mathematical for a large-scale information system to be true from scratch? Their explanation confirms thatAccounts of system development and the systems development literature frequently focus p rimarily on the new system and tend to underemphasize the bureau of preexisting systems Few pay much attention to the role of pre-existing information systems in IS Information Systems development. To the extent the new system must commingle with pre-existing systems or use existing hardware and software vivacious systems have also been regarded as problems or barriers to the development of new IS and as disablers of IS-establish organizational innovation and change This approach, too, tends to treat pre-existing systems as objects, downhearted boxes (e.g. Markus, 1983).Those mentioned above are the most notable points when studying computer design in its conventional method, which is, as can be seen, techno-centric.CONCLUSION take down though conventional approaches of system design have been applied from the beginning of the age of Information Technology, they are still techno-centric. What designers should focus on are those system characteristics that are more operable by th e individuals of an organisation this includes the user interface design, the language used within the various parts of the system (those related to both the software and the hardware) Another important point is the adaptability to the organisation that communicate the system the designers should understand fully that various factors that can lead the impertinently created system to be more social-oriented and to be what the organisation needs.Techno-centric designs can work, but only in technical related fields and sections. Previous systems should be studied carefully before initiating the design plan for new ones this will enable the designer to understand what characteristics worked previously, what structure are the employees and the managers used to work with, and which tools can be re-used within the new system.Anderson and Vendelo (2004, p.27) explain the problem of techno-centric design by stating that when introduced into a field, the technical system often needs to be changed to take into account the more holistic requirements that are present in the field, as users need to accommodate the technology in their daily routines. graphic symbol swayAnderson, K. V. and Vendelo, M. T. (2004) The Past and Future of Information Systems, Oxford Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.Avgerou, C. and Cornford, T. (1998) Developing Information Systems Concepts, Issues and Practice, unsanded York Palgrave Macmillan.Chae, B. and Scott, M. (2005) The surface of emergence in systems development agency, institutions, and large-scale information systems, European Journal of Information Systems, 14, 19-36.Davidson, E. and Chiasson, M. (2004) Contextual influences on technology use mediation a comparative analysis of electronic medical record systems, European Journal of Information Systems, 14, 6-18.Doherty, N. and King, M. (2005) From technical to socio-technical change tackling the human and organizational aspects of systems development projects, European Journal of Inf ormation Systems, 14, 1-5.Kelkar, S.A. (2004) Structured System Analysis and Design, fresh Delhi Prentice Hall of India.Simmers, L. (2004) Introduction to Health Science Technology, New York Thomson Delmar Learning.Question 2Are the work systems considered in week 2 readings based on an organisational or activity oriented perspective?INTRODUCTIONThis paper explains the various modes in which organisations operate in order to achieve their bloodline related objectives. This includes the organisational approach and the activity-related approach.The paper also describes the work systems considered in the readings in order to identify according to which mode they operate, though the understanding of their structure and implementation of the various processes and procedures.To be able to give a encompassing response to the main question of this paper, we should understand the meaning of each term presented within it and this will be of great help in the attached parts of this paper.As explained by Cope (2006, p.62), a work system is a system of people and/or machines which perform a business process. An organisation is normally made up of many work systems. An information system supports and/or structures and/or controls and/or automates the work performed by other work systemsAnother source defines a work system by stating that it is a complex network of mover-ends relations. The basic many-to-many relationships in this network and its opened coupling is the basic source of the need for human intervention in order to remove ambiguity and to control the functional state (Salvendy Karwowski, 1994, p.69). This way of life that a work system includes every person and all items or tools that are functioning to perform a certain process required for the continuity, and profitability, of an organisation.ORGANSATIONAL vs. ACTIVITY-ORIENTEDAs explained by Sachs (1995, p.36-37) there are two perspective methods of performing the various operations and processes of an entity, these are either organisational or activity-oriented. The organisational scheme can be determined and discovered through the evident use of different sets of defined tasks and operations such as those described in methods and procedures, which save a set of business functions The activityoriented method, on the other hand, suggests that the range of activities, intercourse practices, relationships, and coordination it takes to accomplish business functions is complex and continually mediated by workers and managers alike. As stated by the author, activity-oriented methods allow the employee or worker to improve, learn more, function better, and, ultimately, enhances the way in which the business as a whole functions. An activity orientation draws on insights about work practice from several disciplines, including anthropology, history, and psychology, and in so doing provides a holistic approach to the analysis of work.Anderson and Vendelo (2004, p.143-144) agree with Sac hs and explain that the method according to which an organisation functions will affect a number of fields including management studies, business administration, information systems development, organizational behaviour, job design, human resource management, training, etc. and in relation to systems design, the authors confirm that this growing fundamental view reconceptualises the nature of work and organizational life, and the role of information technology support. It emphasizes work practices, and the way learning is accomplished within communities of practice. They also state that organizational mode is still the major one in the organisations of nowadays as it is considered to be grounded in scientific management ideas, focusing on training, tasks, procedures, workflow and teams while the activity-oriented method concentrates on learning, know-how, networks, conceptual understanding, work practices, judgement, and communities.The example reported by Sachs for what concerns the organisational perspective is the one of the Trouble Ticketing System (TTS) which is a huge database system that is based on organising work tasks and distributing them on workers. In this case, the tasks performed by workers are only those that are considered by the system, while the activity-oriented method depends on each worker to solve problems from split up to end quite an than perform genius tasks. The be design assumption in organizational thinking is that technology design should eliminate human error. This differs sharply from the underlying assumption in activity-oriented thinking, which is that technology design should enhance the human force of finding problems and solving them. Organizational thinking assumes that people create human error. Activity-oriented thinking assumes that people solve problems. (p.40).In the case of United piece of land Service (UPS), as explained by laudon and Laudon (1995, p.17), we find that it is clearly working according to the organisational method. This is evident as all the structure of work is organised through the use of a centralised system that communicates to drivers the required destinations of various packages, and gathers the spoken language information concerning each package and adds it to its main database which can be consulted by anyone through the use of any Internet connected device. Communications between the employees are reduced to the minimum as all work related information can be obtained from the system this includes the delivery segment, the customer redevelopment department, the commitment department and management. Even the requests of customers can be done straight off through the system as all the required information is provided (shipping rates, shipment routes, times, etc).But on the other hand, there is a side of UPS that can be considered activity-oriented this can be found in what concerns the sales department and the marketing department these two functions require a different approach and it is being followed. The focus, when it comes to these two sections of the work process, depends solely on the performance which is not measured through tasks, but through problem solving from start to end. Communication, training, and know-how are essential here. The duty of the departments in question is to identify problems, dig up the causes, and come up with successful solution.A clear case of the organisational approach is the one of the company called Electronic Banking System Inc. In this company, every single individual is responsible for a specific task, he/she is being monitored all the time, the production of each individual is checked continuously, conversations between employees/workers are not allowed if not related to task performance, and even looking out the windowpane (which is considered to be nothing more than distraction from work) is not allowed (Horowitz, 1996, p.322). According to this system, any error is digitally monitored and im mediately reported. As explained earlier, in a system such as this one, there is no space for improvement, and there is no need for problem solving skills what each person should do is pre-set and no special talents or know-how qualities are required.CONCLUSIONSystem design in organisational businesses and entities is, to a certain extent, fairly simple as the tasks are well defined before the designer, the level of the various users rights and privileges is evident, and the processes to perform are directly requested by the organisation.Development in the activity oriented environment is difficult as it is needed to separate the situational and the personal elements and the effects each one has on the other during the process of interaction. The designer should be able to identify the required processes and operations through the help of analytical tools (Peiro, 1995, p.284). This means that a social study in what concerns the various functions of the system should performed by the designer in advance in order to enable him/her to produce the required work system.Another important factor for the designer is to be able to comprehend the various policies within the organisation in question in order to reach the desired system which complies with those rules and policies. It is also possible for the designer to offer a possibility of continuous communications, learning, and enhancement through the system even in businesses based on the organisational method.Reference ListCope, C. (2006) Beneath the Surface, Santa Rosa, CA Informing Science Press.Salvendy, G. and Karwowski, W. (Ed.). (1994) Design of Work and Development of Personnel in Advanced Manufacturing, New York John Wiley Sons, Inc.Sachs, P. (1995) Transforming Work Collaboration, Learning, and Design, connector for Computing Machinery. Communications of the ACM, 38, 9 36-44.Anderson, K. V. and Vendelo, M. T. (2004) The Past and Future of Information Systems, Oxford Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.Laudon , K. and Laudon, J. (2005). anxiety Information Systems Managing the Digital Firm, 9th edn, New Jersey Prentice Hall.Horowitz, T. (1996) Mr. Edens Profits from observance His Workers Every Move, in Kling, R. Computerization and Controversy, San Diego Academic Press, pp.322-325.Peiro, J.M. (1995) Work and Organizational psychological science European Contributions of the Nineties, East Sussex, Erlbaum (UK) Taylor Francis.